Literature search and screening protocol
A systematic review in compliance with the Preferred Reporting Items
for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses (PRISMA) framework (Moher,
2009). A search was carried out on the Web of Science database for
search terms related to land use, biodiversity and yield (see below
for the full search term and all refinement options employed). All
articles published since 1 January 1990 in English or Spanish were
included. The final search resulted in 9,909 studies.
Studies meeting the following selection criteria were included:
Studies had to measure both species richness and yield in the same
site in response to the application of conventional land‐use
intensification. This included studies measuring the effect of
conventional intensification on several sites in response to different
intensities (i.e. space‐for‐time substitutes). Out of the full initial
set of papers, astracts of 6,116 sudies were manually screened.
Studies were retained only if they contained information about land
use, species richness, and/or yield. In order to filter the remaining
3,793 studies, a machine‐learning algorithm, based on ensembles of
Support Vector Machines (SVMs), was used (developed for systematic
reviews of the medical literature; see Wallace, Trikalinos, Lau,
Brodley, & Schmid, 2010). The machine‐learning algorithm correctly
identified 84% of the manually screened studies as being relevant,
with a specificity of 51% (standard deviation 0.016), that is, the
model eliminated half of the irrelevant. The full text documents of
all studies identified as potentially relevant (1,371), both screened
manually or through machine learning, were acquired and processed
further.
Data extraction and validation
From these 1,371 studies, 115 studies had sufficient data to be
included. Means, standard deviations and sample sizes for control
(lower land‐use intensity) and treatment (higher land‐use intensity)
were extracted from the text, tables or figures (using ImageJ;
Schneider, Rasband, & Eliceiri, 2012). If data were not completely
available in the main document and the Supplementary Material, it was
request requested from the corresponding author. Studies that did not
report means or sample sizes were excluded from the analysis. This
resulted in a total of 115 studies that were used in subsequent
analyses. Data coding and data review were undertaken by eight of the
co‐authors. Initially, studies were coded as a group to assure
inter‐coder consistency and reliability. Subsequently, frequent
internal reviews were conducted to maintain consistency. Each document
was coded by at least two of the co‐authors.
Only those studies were incorporated which included, both, information
on species richness and yield in response to conventional land‐use
intensification in the same locations. The measurements for both
variables also had to be collected at the same area (but possibly in
differently sized plots), excluding studies that, for example,
measured species richness in plots or landscapes and used
coarser‐scale statistics (e.g. sub‐national) for yield. It was assumed
that the original study authors sampled yield and species richness
using appropriate spatial units for both. Based on the type of product
that was harvested the production system (crop, green fodder or wood)
was first classified according to the description of the land use
provided in the original paper.
Land‐use intensity and intensification classification
The classification system for land‐use intensity was based on a
pre‐defined set of management practices. Land‐use intensity was
defined based on energy use and labor as a combination of input
intensity (e.g. type of fertilizer/pesticide application) and aspects
related to output or harvest intensity (e.g. type of harvest, number
of harvests per year) but not the actual outputs (i.e. yields)
themselves in order to avoid circularity. While this conceptualization
of intensification will identify more intensive systems based on the
type of management practices implemented (e.g. no fertilizer
vs. organic vs. chemical fertilizer), it does not classify land‐use
intensity based on quantities of a management practice (e.g. kg
nitrogen applied per area). Thus, the classification of
intensification best reflects conventional intensification, rather
than other forms of intensification (e.g. sustainable intensification
in agriculture; Rockström et al., 2017) and it also allows for
comparisons across production systems and regions (Hudson et al.,
2014).
For studying a gradient of land‐use intensification steps, first three
broad land‐use intensity classes were defined: low, medium and high,
with separate criteria for each of the globally most common production
systems: crops, wood and green fodder(see Table 1). In a second step,
we distinguished different degrees of conventional land‐use
intensification within each study in order to form intensification
cases for the subsequent analysis. Land‐use intensification could
occur in small steps, meaning an increase in pre‐existing management
activities that does not lead to substantial changes in the production
system (i.e. no change of land‐use intensity class). In this way,
cases for the intensification steps low‐low, medium‐medium and
high‐high were formed. More substantial changes in land‐use may lead
to a change of a production system into another land‐use intensity
class, resulting in cases covering the low‐medium, medium‐high and
low‐high intensification steps.
By including measurements for different species groups and/or types of
yield, a publication could provide several cases of land‐use
intensification (e.g. one response of crop yield and the responses of
plants, birds and insects to a given intensification step would result
in three species richness cases and one yield case) leading to unequal
numbers of cases for species richness and yield.
Case extraction from all 115 studies and based on different land‐use
intensification steps, taxa or product types as described above,
resulted in a total of 449 cases, 292 cases for species richness and
157 for yield.
Full Web of Science search term
TOPIC search term:
(( ( (land use OR land*use OR (*forest* AND (plantation OR
silvicult* OR *cut* OR logg*)) OR agro*forest* OR
field* OR farm* OR agricult* OR grassland* OR pasture*
OR rangeland OR meadow* OR cropland OR fertiliz* OR pesticid*
OR fungicid* OR herbicid* OR irriga* )
AND
(diversity OR species richness OR biodiversity OR (taxonomic AND
richness) OR (abundance* AND species) OR even*ess OR shannon OR
simpson )
(provisioning OR producti* OR food OR fodder OR feed OR fibre OR
logg* OR fuel OR commodit* OR harvest* OR wood OR timber OR
coffee OR cacao OR crop* OR yield* OR oil) )
NOT
(solar cell OR *polymer* OR genom* OR spectrum OR nano* OR
*tpase* OR DNA OR brain OR semicond* OR receptor OR memory OR
lymph* OR neuro* OR *electr* OR mitoch* OR *plankton
OR optic* OR marrow OR methan* OR clone OR cloning OR
protein* OR pharmac* OR RNA OR *blast* OR epithel* OR
chromat* OR membra* OR coral OR Cell OR marine OR fish* OR
prokaryo* OR ocean* OR *porou* OR cortex OR crystal OR
marine OR aerosol* OR hydrolog* OR hexamer OR atom* OR
molecule* OR oxida* OR dioxide OR enzyme* OR Bose-Einstein OR
*catalyt* OR pacemak* OR mars OR galaxy OR *galact* OR
diabet* OR pluto* OR cardi* OR cadmium OR arabidopsis OR
sexual OR glacial OR calcium OR ligament OR soil organic carbon OR
radiation OR gibberellin* OR 3D OR sensor* OR new species OR
hominin OR coast* OR infect* OR meta-analys* OR transpiration
OR scenario* OR projected OR soil-rock OR termite-fungus OR
termitomyces OR pathogenicity OR panicle OR rainwater harvesting OR
crown architecture OR xray OR tomography OR household OR recycling OR
imaging OR during succession OR ball* OR root rot OR trichoderma
harzianum OR isolation trails OR pot experiment OR cloud immersion OR
pimp OR radioactive contamination OR Chernobyl OR radiocaesium OR
ragweed OR bruise OR machine vision OR plasma OR insulin OR linoleic
OR infest* OR galling OR glucosid* OR allel* OR blood OR
radial OR poison* OR milk OR subsurface OR evapotranspiration OR
phytotron OR CH4 OR inflow OR detergent OR styrox OR ewe OR p
resorption OR bull* OR pig production OR wean* OR diarrhoea OR
prototype OR energy waste OR group discussion OR computer runs OR
land-classification strategies OR household OR interview OR flav*
OR jena experiment ) ))
NOT in TITLE:
((model* OR wastewater OR contamination OR equation OR groundwater
OR coefficient OR pore OR learning OR innovation OR flux* OR
niche* OR demograph* OR urban* OR rehabilitat* OR
cognit* OR stress* OR knowledge OR therapy OR somatic OR mining
OR mineral* OR tool OR simula* OR fan OR sprayer OR bench OR
poverty OR an index OR a new index OR bureaucra* OR epidem* OR
review* OR synthes* OR disease OR infect* OR School OR
teach* OR MRI OR *informatic* OR radio* OR vector OR
labor* OR power OR depression OR kitchen OR *remediat* OR
cranium OR river OR lake OR burrow* OR litter OR *algebra* OR
industry OR earthquake OR elephant OR radio* OR wheel OR rail OR
thrust OR ray OR program OR account* OR perceiv* OR percept*
OR incent* OR debate* OR future OR view OR female* OR
male* OR greenhouse* OR xylem OR phloem OR hydroponic* OR
endophy* OR math* OR signal* OR embryo* OR anatom* OR
allelopath* OR opinion* OR capital* OR enterpris* OR
compound* OR trout OR plastic OR discharg* OR advice OR
stoichiometr* OR iodine OR involucr* OR N-15* OR mutualism OR
wildfire* OR volatile OR emmission* OR climate zoning OR
ordination OR ration OR slaughtered OR force OR break* OR
protogynous OR out-crossed OR outcrossed OR comment* OR
forecast* OR aquat* OR probability OR prediction))
NOT in PUBLICATION NAME:
(( PLANT DISEASE OR NUTRIENT CYCLING IN AGROECOSYSTEMS OR WEED
TECHNOLOGY OR WEED TECHNOLOGY OR WEED RESEARCH OR SOIL SCIENCE SOCIETY
OF AMERICA JOURNAL OR EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE OR TREE PHYSIOLOGY OR
TREES STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OR CHEMOSPHERE OR TRANSACTIONS OF THE
ASAE OR soil tillage OR Economic Botany OR trends in ecology OR
opinions OR policy OR philosophical OR LAND USE POLICY))
Refined by:
Timespan=1990-2014
Search language=Auto
RESEARCH DOMAINS=( SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY ) AND [excluding] DOCUMENT
TYPES=( ABSTRACT OR CORRECTION OR BIOGRAPHY OR MEETING OR BOOK OR
OTHER OR BIBLIOGRAPHY OR REVIEW OR LETTER OR REPORT OR ART AND
LITERATURE OR EDITORIAL OR NEWS OR CASE REPORT ) AND LANGUAGES=(
ENGLISH ) AND [excluding] LANGUAGES=( SPANISH OR PORTUGUESE OR DANISH
OR FRENCH OR CHINESE OR JAPANESE OR SLOVAK OR GERMAN OR CZECH OR
AFRIKAANS OR SLOVENIAN OR ESTONIAN ) AND RESEARCH AREAS=(
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES ECOLOGY OR AGRICULTURE OR PLANT SCIENCES OR
SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY OTHER TOPICS OR FORESTRY OR EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY OR
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION OR LIFE SCIENCES BIOMEDICINE OTHER TOPICS )
AND [excluding] RESEARCH AREAS=( CHEMISTRY OR MARINE FRESHWATER
BIOLOGY OR MATERIALS SCIENCE OR ENGINEERING OR BIOCHEMISTRY MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY OR GENETICS HEREDITY OR FOOD SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY OR WATER
RESOURCES OR ZOOLOGY OR PHYSICS OR BIOTECHNOLOGY APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY
OR METEOROLOGY ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES OR GEOLOGY OR ENERGY FUELS OR
OCEANOGRAPHY OR PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OR TOXICOLOGY OR BUSINESS ECONOMICS
OR VETERINARY SCIENCES OR PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH OR
PHARMACOLOGY PHARMACY OR MICROBIOLOGY OR CELL BIOLOGY OR MATHEMATICAL
COMPUTATIONAL BIOLOGY ) AND [excluding] RESEARCH AREAS=( BIOPHYSICS OR
DEMOGRAPHY OR RADIOLOGY NUCLEAR MEDICINE MEDICAL IMAGING OR PSYCHOLOGY
OR REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OR ARCHITECTURE OR PHYSIOLOGY OR INFORMATION
SCIENCE LIBRARY SCIENCE OR HISTORY PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE OR OPTICS OR
MICROSCOPY OR DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY OR ANATOMY MORPHOLOGY OR MINING
MINERAL PROCESSING OR RESEARCH EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE OR COMMUNICATION
OR ENTOMOLOGY OR MYCOLOGY OR PATHOLOGY OR ANTHROPOLOGY OR
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS OR NEUROSCIENCES NEUROLOGY OR REMOTE SENSING
OR SOCIAL SCIENCES OTHER TOPICS OR CONSTRUCTION BUILDING TECHNOLOGY OR
PALEONTOLOGY OR NUCLEAR SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY OR INSTRUMENTS
INSTRUMENTATION OR IMAGING SCIENCE PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNOLOGY OR
FISHERIES OR GENERAL INTERNAL MEDICINE OR GEOGRAPHY OR GOVERNMENT LAW
OR PHILOSOPHY OR URBAN STUDIES OR ENDOCRINOLOGY METABOLISM OR SOCIAL
ISSUES OR COMPUTER SCIENCE OR EDUCATION EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH OR
IMMUNOLOGY OR SOCIOLOGY OR TRANSPORTATION OR ARTS HUMANITIES OTHER
TOPICS OR PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION OR HISTORY OR LITERATURE OR
MATHEMATICS )
Table 1 | Characterization of land-use intensity classes. The land-use
intensity classes low, medium and high were characterized separately
for the three product groups crops, green fodder and wood. Land-use
intensity was associated to a certain class based on core aspects of
land-use (e.g. fertilizer application, grazing regime, species
management). This was done separately for each product type. Land-use
intensity Crops Green fodder Wood
Low - Crops biological pest control, no fertilization rotational cultivation, possibly with fallow year,
natural irrigation
Low - Green Fodder: biological pest control, no fertilization, low
density grazing, no signs of overgrazing, occasional mowing, no
addition/removal of species
Low - Wood: either combination of or low selective and partial logging,
no fertilization, low levels of thinning, heterogeneous age structure,
naturally developing forest, usually multiple species forest
Medium - Crops: targeted pesticides natural fertilization monocultures
single harvest per year, occasional man-made irrigation
Medium - Green Fodder: targeted pesticides, natural fertilization, medium
density grazing, no signs of overgrazing, regular mowing, some
addition/removal of species
Medium - Wood: selective or partial logging in whole forest area,
natural fertilizer, conventional thinning, removal of non-production
trees/understorey, homogeneous age structure, managed natural
forests/low intensity plantation forest
High - Green Fodder: non-targeted pesticides, chemical fertilization,
high density grazing, signs of overgrazing, regular mowing, multiple
harvest/year addition/removal of species, monocultures
High - Wood: clear cut, chemical fertilization, chemical thinning, very
high levels of thinning, plantation of exotic species, homogenous
age/species structure, removal of understorey
Table 2 Description of data used in the analysis. Overview and
meta-data of the variables either coded directly from the studies or
extracted from external data sources and used in the analysis.
Study Case - Each study-case corresponds to a unique set of response
statistics. Hence, a single study can include multiple cases if it
reports on more than two land-use intensities, species groups, or
products, or if it reports on several locations that differ in
covariates, e.g. climate.
Longitude/Latitude - The geographic location
of a study either as directly reported by the authors or, if missing,
georeferenced by the coders based on a location description.
Intensification step - Level of baseline and increased land-use
intensity class based on the classification given in table 1. The
intensity classes low, medium and high were used to form pairs
([initial]-[final]) of intensification steps (low-low, low-medium,
medium-medium, medium-high, high-high and low-high).
Species group -
Broad class of species group, i.e. vertebrates, invertebrates, and
plants. Product - Broad class of harvested product, i.e. crop, green
fodder, and wood.
Climate - Broad climate zone according to the
Köppen-Geiger climate classification, i.e. polar, cold (continental),
temperate, arid, and tropical.
Land-use history - Broad class of time
of first significant use (table 3), i.e. 5950 BC, 50 BC, 1450, 1950,
after 1950. And categorized according to the major developments of
agriculture.
Dependency of yield and species richness measure - An
indication of whether species richness and yield are measured from the
same species group, in which case species richness and production are
considered to be linked rather than independent.
Dependency of
intensity class and yield measure - An indication of whether land-use
intensity step is based on yield, in which case yield is considered to
be linked to intensity rather than independent. For example the
harvesting technique in forest (e.g. clear cut, selective logging) is
used to define the land-use intensity class and also determines the
amount of extracted yield.
Table 3 Overview of the five major stages of history land-use applied
in the analysis. Numbers given in brackets are species richness/yield
cases that fall within one of the land-use history classes.
Land use history class (including all cells with greater than 20% used
area) Short characterization of land-use intensification World regions
of main agricultural area expansion
Origin of agriculture (Neolithic
Revolution), until 5,950 B.C. (n=21/9) Domestication of the first main
crops (emmer, einkorn, wheat, barley, peas, lentils, rice, etc.) and
agricultural animals. The fertile crescent (Levante), China, New
Guinea, Central and South America (Andean region)
Expansion of
agriculture, 5,950 B.C. - 50 B.C. (n=115/57) Significant enlargement
of agriculture especially in Central and South America, and the Sahel
region of Africa, new domesticated crops and animals, cotton in Peru,
maize in Central America. Africa, Europe, Central and South America
Middle Ages, 50 B.C. - 1.450 A.D. (n=35/23)Further enlargement of
agriculture, especially in the temperate and boreal zone in the Old
World Europe, Asia, Africa, Central and South America
Modern
agriculture, 1,450 - 1,950 A.D. (n=47/23) From first technological
advances, (e.g. three-field system, exchange of Old World and New
World crops, livestock exchange) to the first agricultural revolution
(e.g. first machineries, four-field system, artificial fertilizers).
Include the beginning of global industrialization of agriculture,
broad use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides.
Global Green
Revolution, 1,950 - today (n= 74/36) New breeds in crops and
livestock, genetically modified organism and new pesticides Global
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